When was polyester created?

Polyester fabric hasn’t been around forever. Our great-grandparents were clothed in plant- and animal-based materials such as wool, linen, and cotton. By the end of World World II, the latter accounted for over 80% of fibre consumed.

Chemical advances in the 1940s introduced artificial fibres, and so began a gradual shift away from cotton, turning towards cheaper and faster textile production methods. Nowadays, polyester dominates the clothing industry. According to the Textile Exchange Material Market Report 2023, polyester production volumes increased from 61m tonnes in 2021 to 63m tonnes in 2022. Polyester continues to be the most widely produced fibre, making up a staggering 54% of the global market in 2022.  

So what exactly is polyester?

The term “polyester” describes a category of polymers produced by mixing ethylene glycol (derived from petroleum) and terephthalic acid.

Chemical jargon aside, polyester is a common plastic with a wide range of applications extending beyond the fashion industry.

It ranks third behind polyethylene (packaging and water bottles) and polypropylene (ropes, stationary, and modern banknotes) as the most commonly used plastic. In this article, we’re focussing on PET polyester, which is the most commonly used in fashion.

Polyester is not biodegradable

Conventional polyester is not biodegradable, meaning that polyester fabric shirt you bought last season will not decompose for 20 years at best and 200 years at worst.

Despite innovations in the space, polyester fibres as a whole are still not reliably biodegradable outside of a lab setting, and we don’t consider any form of it to be a lower-impact material at this stage.

What’s more, polyester is partially derived from petroleum, and the oil manufacturing industry is the world’s largest pollutant and a key driver of climate change.

Polyester dyes are not lower-impact

Polyester dyes, known as disperse dyes, are insoluble in water. Like polyester, they have a complex molecular structure that doesn’t readily decompose.

Wastewater from textile factories containing leftover dye is difficult to treat, and when it enters the environment, its toxicity causes serious problems to local plant and animal life.

In addition to causing environmental problems, disperse dyes are toxic to humans. Dye workers worldwide report higher incidences of cancers and lung disease than the general population.

Polyester manufacturing is water-thirsty

Polyester is created through an energy-intensive heating process and requires large quantities of water for cooling. If not managed properly, this can result in groundwater levels dropping and a local reduction in access to clean drinking water—particularly in vulnerable communities where polyester is often manufactured.

What about recycled polyester?

Recycled textiles’ market share slightly decreased from around 8.5% in 2021 to 7.9% in 2022, according to the Textile Exchange Material Market Report 2023, and less than 1% of the global fibre market was from pre- and post- consumer recycled textiles in the same year, meaning that textile-to-textile recycling is seriously lagging behind.

In the past few years, the sustainable fashion sphere has been introduced to recycled polyester fibres, which have been touted as a “more sustainable” replacement for virgin polyester fabrics. Recycled PET plastic is usually made from recycled plastic bottles, and while it sounds like a good solution for repurposing plastic waste, it’s not so clearcut just yet. As The Guardian reported, “recycled polyester created through a mechanical process can’t be recycled again and again. This raises some concerns when fast fashion brands increasingly rely on the material. It also likely sustains demand for single-use PET bottles, not something we want to see.” The article goes on to explain that recycled polyester is often still blended with virgin polyester, “furthering the reliance on fossil fuels. And at the end of these garments’ lives, they’re still often destined for the landfill.”

Worth noting is chemical recycling—a burgeoning recycling process that breaks down polyester into its monomer components, thereby creating recycled polyester with the same properties as virgin polyester. However, this kind of recycling is still extremely limited and not likely to be picked up by major fast fashion labels any time soon.

So it’s worth keeping in mind that when fast fashion brands simply replace a small portion of their collection with recycled-PET products, it doesn’t suddenly make them a brand worth supporting, as their impact often remains hugely wasteful across the board. Not to mention that recycled polyester still sheds microplastics.

If you do purchase recycled-PET garments from better brands, be extra careful with fleeces. Studies have shown that plastic microfibres are polluting waterways at an alarming rate and that fleece made from recycled PET plastic may be more polluting than its original form.

More on those microfibres

Multiple studies have shown that synthetic fibres make up a good share of microplastics found in waters and are widely implicated as the source of pollution. It’s been suggested that more than 4,500 fibres can be released per gram of clothing per wash, according to the Plastic Soup Foundation.

Microfibres are so tiny they can easily move through sewage treatment plants. They do not biodegrade and bind with molecules from harmful chemicals found in wastewater. They are then eaten by small fishes and plankton, concentrating toxins and travelling up the food chain until they reach us. The consequences of microfibres on the human body have yet to be researched and revealed. Until then, here are our top tips on dealing with microfibres in clothing.

What can we do to dress more sustainably?

• Look for garments made from lower-impact materials, like organic cotton, hemp, linen, or TENCEL, or from reused, upcycled, and recycled materials and coloured using lower-impact dyes.
• Choose well, buy less. Even garments made with non-synthetic fibres have ethical issues. Cotton is a thirsty fabric, and the wool industry has sometimes been criticised for unethical practices. By choosing well and buying less overall, you help discourage the unsustainable overproduction of fibres, which comes at a cost to the environment and the world’s most vulnerable people and animals.
• Buy from second hand and charity shops. An even better alternative to buying fewer new things is buying more pre-loved garments from second hand stores. Since polyester garments are both common and durable, you will find plenty of options in thrift shops that show few signs of wear and tear and will stand the test of time.
• Wash less and wash better. Solutions to avoid microfibre shedding during washing are appearing, such as special laundry bags and laundry balls. You can also wash on cold, with a fuller load, and using liquid detergent to reduce shedding. And line-drying is always a better option than machine drying for the environment, your clothes, and your power bill.
• Choose brands with policies that protect and respect the planet and the people making their products. Good On You helps you uncover brands that perform better on the issues you care about. Check out the app or directory to discover brands that tick all your boxes.

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Nylon—you’ve probably seen it on the labels of some of your stretchier clothing items like tights or stockings. But what is it, and where does it come from? And does it have an impact on the planet or its inhabitants? We ask: how sustainable is nylon?

A brief history of nylon

Apart from underwear and hosiery, nylon can also be found in the bristles of our toothbrushes, umbrellas, knits, swimwear, and activewear. But for something most of us interact with on a daily basis, our understanding of how the fabric is made and its impact on the planet probably isn’t up to scratch.

Nylon was the first fabric made entirely in a laboratory, and its invention represents the dawn of the age of synthetics. Nylon became widely available to the general public around the time of World War II. Nylon had two main roles to play in wartime. Firstly—thanks to its strength and durability—nylon was used extensively for military products, including parachutes, tents, ropes, and tyres. Secondly, nylon replaced everything that was once made from silk—such as silk stockings—as silk imports from Asia experienced significant shortages and price fluctuations.

What is nylon?

Essentially, nylon is a type of plastic derived from crude oil. This plastic is then put through an intensive chemical process, resulting in the strong, stretchy fibres that make it so useful as a fabric.

More specifically, nylons are a family of materials called polyamides, made from reacting carbon-based chemicals found in coal and petroleum in a high-pressure, heated environment. This chemical reaction, known as condensation polymerization, forms a large polymer—in the form of a sheet of nylon. To make nylon fabric for apparel, this nylon sheet is then broken into chips, melted, and drawn through a mechanical spinneret to produce individual fibres that are woven into fabric.

Nylon’s impact on the planet

Different kinds of nylon have different properties, but the common threads between each are strength, durability, and ability to be moulded into shape. The flip side is that no form of nylon is biodegradable; so once you no longer have a need for your torn stockings or old toothbrush, it sits in a landfill for hundreds of years.

Nylon is in part derived from coal and petroleum. In addition to supporting some of the world’s dirtiest industries, the manufacture of nylon has several other direct environmental impacts.

• Greenhouse gases: producing nylon creates nitrous oxide, a greenhouse gas that is 300 times more potent than carbon dioxide.
• Water: manufacturing nylon is a very thirsty process; large amounts of water are used for cooling the fibres, which can be a source of environmental contamination and pollution.
• Energy: manufacturing nylon is a very energy-hungry process, which contributes to environmental degradation and global warming.

But, there’s good news

Remember when we said that nylon is a plastic? Well, plastic can be recycled, right? There are several brands and accreditations that can help consumers find more sustainable nylon products. After all, just because you want to save the planet, doesn’t mean you want your stockings all baggy.

Swedish Stockings, for example, produces beautiful pantyhose from recycled yarn. Their factories also use lower-impact dyes, post-dyeing water treatment, and solar power for much of the energy needed in the manufacturing process.

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What is angora?

Angora is a long, silky fibre obtained from one of the four breeds of angora rabbit. The fur is highly prized for its softness, warmth, and strength. It is often blended with other wools to add softness to jumpers, scarves, and all things warm and wintry. The production of angora has come under fire since PETA released information about the appalling conditions in which it was being produced in several Chinese factories. As a result, many major fashion labels ceased using the controversial fibre. So can there be a way to share the fur without harming the bunnies, or is it best avoided entirely?

How is angora produced?

Angora is hair that’s live plucked or cut from angora rabbits. Whether farmers pluck or shear angora rabbits, it’s all physically and psychologically devastating for these small prey animals who fear being picked up and are prone to heart attacks in stressful situations.

Large-scale commercial angora production often favours plucking, since longer angora hairs attract a higher price. This is the practice that has led to the intense criticism of the angora industry, as plucking the rabbits causes the animals pain and distress. In addition, commercially farmed rabbits are usually kept alone in cages, to avoid them fighting other animals and dirtying their valuable coat.

The largest angora industry is in China, which produces over 90% of the world’s supply of angora. The fur is harvested three to four times per year from more than 50 million Angora rabbits. As rabbits age, they yield less fur and so, after a few years of producing fur, they are killed. China has no standards to regulate the treatment of rabbits used in the angora industry and no penalties for animal abuse.

So, what can we do?

The complexity of global supply chains makes it impossible for consumers to verify exactly how angora wool was made, and in any case, the industry is exploitative, unethical, and unnecessary.

Luckily, corporations are starting to recognise this too, with a number of major brands (including ASOS) discontinuing sourcing products made from angora wool until the industry steps up its ethical standards. Good On You also marks down any use of angora by brands the same amount as fur use, and we don’t consider it an ethical fabric for garments.

You can ensure your winter warmers are ethical by checking the tags of your sweaters and choosing knitwear made from better fibres with lower impacts on the planet, people, and animals, and leaving fur exactly where it belongs: on the backs of the animals who grew it.

Learn more about sustainable and ethical materials

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